Merge c31da0254a into 78289cc844

* Adjust Pow implementation
* Add PowWithPrecision method
* Add PowInt32 method
* Add PowBigInt method

decimal.go

@@ -43,6 +43,20 @@ import (
 //	d4.String() // output: "0.667"
 var DivisionPrecision = 16
 
+// PowPrecisionNegativeExponent specifies the maximum precision of the result (digits after decimal point)
+// when calculating decimal power. Only used for cases where the exponent is a negative number.
+// This constant applies to Pow, PowInt32 and PowBigInt methods, PowWithPrecision method is not constrained by it.
+//
+// Example:
+//
+//	d1, err := decimal.NewFromFloat(15.2).PowInt32(-2)
+//	d1.String() // output: "0.0043282548476454"
+//
+//	decimal.PowPrecisionNegativeExponent = 24
+//	d2, err := decimal.NewFromFloat(15.2).PowInt32(-2)
+//	d2.String() // output: "0.004328254847645429362881"
+var PowPrecisionNegativeExponent = 16
+
 // MarshalJSONWithoutQuotes should be set to true if you want the decimal to
 // be JSON marshaled as a number, instead of as a string.
 // WARNING: this is dangerous for decimals with many digits, since many JSON
@@ -649,20 +663,274 @@ func (d Decimal) Mod(d2 Decimal) Decimal {
 	return r
 }
 
-// Pow returns d to the power d2
+// Pow returns d to the power of d2.
+// When exponent is negative the returned decimal will have maximum precision of PowPrecisionNegativeExponent places after decimal point.
+//
+// Pow returns 0 (zero-value of Decimal) instead of error for power operation edge cases, to handle those edge cases use PowWithPrecision
+// Edge cases not handled by Pow:
+//   - 0 ** 0 => undefined value
+//   - 0 ** y, where y < 0 => infinity
+//   - x ** y, where x < 0 and y is non-integer decimal => imaginary value
+//
+// Example:
+//
+//	d1 := decimal.NewFromFloat(4.0)
+//	d2 := decimal.NewFromFloat(4.0)
+//	res1 := d1.Pow(d2)
+//	res1.String() // output: "256"
+//
+//	d3 := decimal.NewFromFloat(5.0)
+//	d4 := decimal.NewFromFloat(5.73)
+//	res2 := d3.Pow(d4)
+//	res2.String() // output: "10118.08037125"
 func (d Decimal) Pow(d2 Decimal) Decimal {
-	var temp Decimal
-	if d2.IntPart() == 0 {
-		return NewFromFloat(1)
+	baseSign := d.Sign()
+	expSign := d2.Sign()
+
+	if baseSign == 0 {
+		if expSign == 0 {
+			return Decimal{}
+		}
+		if expSign == 1 {
+			return Decimal{zeroInt, 0}
+		}
+		if expSign == -1 {
+			return Decimal{}
+		}
 	}
-	temp = d.Pow(d2.Div(NewFromFloat(2)))
-	if d2.IntPart()%2 == 0 {
-		return temp.Mul(temp)
+
+	if expSign == 0 {
+		return Decimal{oneInt, 0}
 	}
-	if d2.IntPart() > 0 {
-		return temp.Mul(temp).Mul(d)
+
+	// TODO: optimize extraction of fractional part
+	one := Decimal{oneInt, 0}
+	expIntPart, expFracPart := d2.QuoRem(one, 0)
+
+	if baseSign == -1 && !expFracPart.IsZero() {
+		return Decimal{}
 	}
-	return temp.Mul(temp).Div(d)
+
+	intPartPow, _ := d.PowBigInt(expIntPart.value)
+
+	// if exponent is an integer we don't need to calculate d1**frac(d2)
+	if expFracPart.value.Sign() == 0 {
+		return intPartPow
+	}
+
+	// TODO: optimize NumDigits for more performant precision adjustment
+	digitsBase := d.NumDigits()
+	digitsExponent := d2.NumDigits()
+
+	precision := digitsBase
+
+	if digitsExponent > precision {
+		precision += digitsExponent
+	}
+
+	precision += 6
+
+	// Calculate x ** frac(y), where
+	// x ** frac(y) = exp(ln(x ** frac(y)) = exp(ln(x) * frac(y))
+	fracPartPow, err := d.Abs().Ln(-d.exp + int32(precision))
+	if err != nil {
+		return Decimal{}
+	}
+
+	fracPartPow = fracPartPow.Mul(expFracPart)
+
+	fracPartPow, err = fracPartPow.ExpTaylor(-d.exp + int32(precision))
+	if err != nil {
+		return Decimal{}
+	}
+
+	// Join integer and fractional part,
+	// base ** (expBase + expFrac) = base ** expBase * base ** expFrac
+	res := intPartPow.Mul(fracPartPow)
+
+	return res
+}
+
+// PowWithPrecision returns d to the power of d2.
+// Precision parameter specifies minimum precision of the result (digits after decimal point).
+// Returned decimal is not rounded to 'precision' places after decimal point.
+//
+// PowWithPrecision returns error when:
+//   - 0 ** 0 => undefined value
+//   - 0 ** y, where y < 0 => infinity
+//   - x ** y, where x < 0 and y is non-integer decimal => imaginary value
+//
+// Example:
+//
+//	d1 := decimal.NewFromFloat(4.0)
+//	d2 := decimal.NewFromFloat(4.0)
+//	res1, err := d1.PowWithPrecision(d2, 2)
+//	res1.String() // output: "256"
+//
+//	d3 := decimal.NewFromFloat(5.0)
+//	d4 := decimal.NewFromFloat(5.73)
+//	res2, err := d3.PowWithPrecision(d4, 5)
+//	res2.String() // output: "10118.080371595015625"
+//
+//	d5 := decimal.NewFromFloat(-3.0)
+//	d6 := decimal.NewFromFloat(-6.0)
+//	res3, err := d5.PowWithPrecision(d6, 10)
+//	res3.String() // output: "0.0013717421"
+func (d Decimal) PowWithPrecision(d2 Decimal, precision int32) (Decimal, error) {
+	baseSign := d.Sign()
+	expSign := d2.Sign()
+
+	if baseSign == 0 {
+		if expSign == 0 {
+			return Decimal{}, fmt.Errorf("cannot represent undefined value of 0**0")
+		}
+		if expSign == 1 {
+			return Decimal{zeroInt, 0}, nil
+		}
+		if expSign == -1 {
+			return Decimal{}, fmt.Errorf("cannot represent infinity value of 0 ** y, where y < 0")
+		}
+	}
+
+	if expSign == 0 {
+		return Decimal{oneInt, 0}, nil
+	}
+
+	// TODO: optimize extraction of fractional part
+	one := Decimal{oneInt, 0}
+	expIntPart, expFracPart := d2.QuoRem(one, 0)
+
+	if baseSign == -1 && !expFracPart.IsZero() {
+		return Decimal{}, fmt.Errorf("cannot represent imaginary value of x ** y, where x < 0 and y is non-integer decimal")
+	}
+
+	intPartPow, _ := d.powBigIntWithPrecision(expIntPart.value, precision)
+
+	// if exponent is an integer we don't need to calculate d1**frac(d2)
+	if expFracPart.value.Sign() == 0 {
+		return intPartPow, nil
+	}
+
+	// TODO: optimize NumDigits for more performant precision adjustment
+	digitsBase := d.NumDigits()
+	digitsExponent := d2.NumDigits()
+
+	if int32(digitsBase) > precision {
+		precision = int32(digitsBase)
+	}
+	if int32(digitsExponent) > precision {
+		precision += int32(digitsExponent)
+	}
+	// increase precision by 10 to compensate for errors in further calculations
+	precision += 10
+
+	// Calculate x ** frac(y), where
+	// x ** frac(y) = exp(ln(x ** frac(y)) = exp(ln(x) * frac(y))
+	fracPartPow, err := d.Abs().Ln(precision)
+	if err != nil {
+		return Decimal{}, err
+	}
+
+	fracPartPow = fracPartPow.Mul(expFracPart)
+
+	fracPartPow, err = fracPartPow.ExpTaylor(precision)
+	if err != nil {
+		return Decimal{}, err
+	}
+
+	// Join integer and fractional part,
+	// base ** (expBase + expFrac) = base ** expBase * base ** expFrac
+	res := intPartPow.Mul(fracPartPow)
+
+	return res, nil
+}
+
+// PowInt32 returns d to the power of exp, where exp is int32.
+// Only returns error when d and exp is 0, thus result is undefined.
+//
+// When exponent is negative the returned decimal will have maximum precision of PowPrecisionNegativeExponent places after decimal point.
+//
+// Example:
+//
+//	d1, err := decimal.NewFromFloat(4.0).PowInt32(4)
+//	d1.String() // output: "256"
+//
+//	d2, err := decimal.NewFromFloat(3.13).PowInt32(5)
+//	d2.String() // output: "300.4150512793"
+func (d Decimal) PowInt32(exp int32) (Decimal, error) {
+	if d.IsZero() && exp == 0 {
+		return Decimal{}, fmt.Errorf("cannot represent undefined value of 0**0")
+	}
+
+	isExpNeg := exp < 0
+	exp = abs(exp)
+
+	n, result := d, New(1, 0)
+
+	for exp > 0 {
+		if exp%2 == 1 {
+			result = result.Mul(n)
+		}
+		exp /= 2
+
+		if exp > 0 {
+			n = n.Mul(n)
+		}
+	}
+
+	if isExpNeg {
+		return New(1, 0).DivRound(result, int32(PowPrecisionNegativeExponent)), nil
+	}
+
+	return result, nil
+}
+
+// PowBigInt returns d to the power of exp, where exp is big.Int.
+// Only returns error when d and exp is 0, thus result is undefined.
+//
+// When exponent is negative the returned decimal will have maximum precision of PowPrecisionNegativeExponent places after decimal point.
+//
+// Example:
+//
+//	d1, err := decimal.NewFromFloat(3.0).PowBigInt(big.NewInt(3))
+//	d1.String() // output: "27"
+//
+//	d2, err := decimal.NewFromFloat(629.25).PowBigInt(big.NewInt(5))
+//	d2.String() // output: "98654323103449.5673828125"
+func (d Decimal) PowBigInt(exp *big.Int) (Decimal, error) {
+	return d.powBigIntWithPrecision(exp, int32(PowPrecisionNegativeExponent))
+}
+
+func (d Decimal) powBigIntWithPrecision(exp *big.Int, precision int32) (Decimal, error) {
+	if d.IsZero() && exp.Sign() == 0 {
+		return Decimal{}, fmt.Errorf("cannot represent undefined value of 0**0")
+	}
+
+	tmpExp := new(big.Int).Set(exp)
+	isExpNeg := exp.Sign() < 0
+
+	if isExpNeg {
+		tmpExp.Abs(tmpExp)
+	}
+
+	n, result := d, New(1, 0)
+
+	for tmpExp.Sign() > 0 {
+		if tmpExp.Bit(0) == 1 {
+			result = result.Mul(n)
+		}
+		tmpExp.Rsh(tmpExp, 1)
+
+		if tmpExp.Sign() > 0 {
+			n = n.Mul(n)
+		}
+	}
+
+	if isExpNeg {
+		return New(1, 0).DivRound(result, precision), nil
+	}
+
+	return result, nil
 }
 
 // ExpHullAbrham calculates the natural exponent of decimal (e to the power of d) using Hull-Abraham algorithm.
@@ -1175,6 +1443,73 @@ func (d Decimal) String() string {
 	return d.string(true)
 }
 
+// Format formats a decimal.
+// thousandsSeparator can be empty, in which case the integer value will be displayed without separation.
+// if decimalSeparator is empty and the value is a decimal this will panic.
+func (d Decimal) Format(thousandsSeparator string, decimalSeparator string, trimTrailingZeros bool) string {
+	if d.exp >= 0 {
+		d = d.rescale(0)
+	}
+
+	abs := new(big.Int).Abs(d.value)
+	str := abs.String()
+
+	var intPart, fractionalPart string
+
+	// NOTE(vadim): this cast to int will cause bugs if d.exp == INT_MIN
+	// and you are on a 32-bit machine. Won't fix this super-edge case.
+	dExpInt := int(d.exp)
+	if len(str) > -dExpInt {
+		intPart = str[:len(str)+dExpInt]
+		fractionalPart = str[len(str)+dExpInt:]
+	} else {
+		intPart = "0"
+
+		num0s := -dExpInt - len(str)
+		fractionalPart = strings.Repeat("0", num0s) + str
+	}
+
+	if thousandsSeparator != "" {
+		parts := 1 + (len(intPart)-1)/3
+		if parts > 1 {
+			intParts := make([]string, 1+(len(intPart)-1)/3)
+			offset := len(intPart) - (len(intParts)-1)*3
+			for i := 0; i < len(intParts); i++ {
+				if i == 0 {
+					intParts[i] = intPart[0:offset]
+				} else {
+					intParts[i] = intPart[(i-1)*3+offset : i*3+offset]
+				}
+			}
+			intPart = strings.Join(intParts, thousandsSeparator)
+		}
+	}
+
+	if trimTrailingZeros {
+		i := len(fractionalPart) - 1
+		for ; i >= 0; i-- {
+			if fractionalPart[i] != '0' {
+				break
+			}
+		}
+		fractionalPart = fractionalPart[:i+1]
+	}
+	if fractionalPart != "" && decimalSeparator == "" {
+		panic("no decimal separator for non-integer")
+	}
+
+	number := intPart
+	if len(fractionalPart) > 0 {
+		number += decimalSeparator + fractionalPart
+	}
+
+	if d.value.Sign() < 0 {
+		return "-" + number
+	}
+
+	return number
+}
+
 // StringFixed returns a rounded fixed-point string with places digits after
 // the decimal point.
 //
@@ -1605,48 +1940,7 @@ func (d Decimal) StringScaled(exp int32) string {
 }
 
 func (d Decimal) string(trimTrailingZeros bool) string {
-	if d.exp >= 0 {
-		return d.rescale(0).value.String()
-	}
-
-	abs := new(big.Int).Abs(d.value)
-	str := abs.String()
-
-	var intPart, fractionalPart string
-
-	// NOTE(vadim): this cast to int will cause bugs if d.exp == INT_MIN
-	// and you are on a 32-bit machine. Won't fix this super-edge case.
-	dExpInt := int(d.exp)
-	if len(str) > -dExpInt {
-		intPart = str[:len(str)+dExpInt]
-		fractionalPart = str[len(str)+dExpInt:]
-	} else {
-		intPart = "0"
-
-		num0s := -dExpInt - len(str)
-		fractionalPart = strings.Repeat("0", num0s) + str
-	}
-
-	if trimTrailingZeros {
-		i := len(fractionalPart) - 1
-		for ; i >= 0; i-- {
-			if fractionalPart[i] != '0' {
-				break
-			}
-		}
-		fractionalPart = fractionalPart[:i+1]
-	}
-
-	number := intPart
-	if len(fractionalPart) > 0 {
-		number += "." + fractionalPart
-	}
-
-	if d.value.Sign() < 0 {
-		return "-" + number
-	}
-
-	return number
+	return d.Format("", ".", trimTrailingZeros)
 }
 
 func (d *Decimal) ensureInitialized() {

decimal_bench_test.go

@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ package decimal
 import (
 	"fmt"
 	"math"
+	"math/big"
 	"math/rand"
 	"sort"
 	"strconv"
@@ -185,6 +186,41 @@ func BenchmarkDecimal_IsInteger(b *testing.B) {
 	}
 }
 
+func BenchmarkDecimal_Pow(b *testing.B) {
+	d1 := RequireFromString("5.2")
+	d2 := RequireFromString("6.3")
+
+	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
+		d1.Pow(d2)
+	}
+}
+
+func BenchmarkDecimal_PowWithPrecision(b *testing.B) {
+	d1 := RequireFromString("5.2")
+	d2 := RequireFromString("6.3")
+
+	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
+		_, _ = d1.PowWithPrecision(d2, 8)
+	}
+}
+func BenchmarkDecimal_PowInt32(b *testing.B) {
+	d1 := RequireFromString("5.2")
+	d2 := int32(10)
+
+	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
+		_, _ = d1.PowInt32(d2)
+	}
+}
+
+func BenchmarkDecimal_PowBigInt(b *testing.B) {
+	d1 := RequireFromString("5.2")
+	d2 := big.NewInt(10)
+
+	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
+		_, _ = d1.PowBigInt(d2)
+	}
+}
+
 func BenchmarkDecimal_NewFromString(b *testing.B) {
 	count := 72
 	prices := make([]string, 0, count)

decimal_test.go

@@ -1513,6 +1513,47 @@ func TestDecimal_RoundDownAndStringFixed(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+func TestDecimal_Format(t *testing.T) {
+	type testData struct {
+		input              string
+		thousandsSeparator string
+		decimalSeparator   string
+		trimTrailingZeros  bool
+		expected           string
+	}
+	tests := []testData{
+		{"0", ",", ".", false, "0"},
+		{"0", ",", ".", true, "0"},
+		{"999", ",", ".", true, "999"},
+		{"1000", ",", ".", true, "1,000"},
+		{"123", ",", ".", true, "123"},
+		{"1234", ",", ".", true, "1,234"},
+		{"12345.67", "", ".", true, "12345.67"},
+		{"12345.00", ",", ".", true, "12,345"},
+		{"12345.00", ",", ".", false, "12,345.00"},
+		{"123456.00", ",", ".", false, "123,456.00"},
+		{"1234567.00", ",", ".", false, "1,234,567.00"},
+		{"1234567.00", ".", ",", false, "1.234.567,00"},
+		{"1234567.00", "_", ".", true, "1_234_567"},
+		{"-12.00", "_", ".", true, "-12"},
+		{"-123.00", "_", ".", true, "-123"},
+		{"-1234.00", "_", ".", true, "-1_234"},
+	}
+
+	for _, test := range tests {
+		d, err := NewFromString(test.input)
+		if err != nil {
+			panic(err)
+		}
+
+		got := d.Format(test.thousandsSeparator, test.decimalSeparator, test.trimTrailingZeros)
+		if got != test.expected {
+			t.Errorf("Format %s got %s, expected %s",
+				d, got, test.expected)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
 func TestDecimal_BankRoundAndStringFixed(t *testing.T) {
 	type testData struct {
 		input         string
@@ -2621,21 +2662,241 @@ func TestDecimal_Cmp2(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestPow(t *testing.T) {
-	a := New(4, 0)
-	b := New(2, 0)
-	x := a.Pow(b)
-	if x.String() != "16" {
-		t.Errorf("Error, saw %s", x.String())
+func TestDecimal_Pow(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, testCase := range []struct {
+		Base     string
+		Exponent string
+		Expected string
+	}{
+		{"0.0", "1.0", "0.0"},
+		{"0.0", "5.7", "0.0"},
+		{"0.0", "-3.2", "0.0"},
+		{"3.13", "0.0", "1.0"},
+		{"-591.5", "0.0", "1.0"},
+		{"3.0", "3.0", "27.0"},
+		{"3.0", "10.0", "59049.0"},
+		{"3.13", "5.0", "300.4150512793"},
+		{"4.0", "2.0", "16.0"},
+		{"4.0", "-2.0", "0.0625"},
+		{"629.25", "5.0", "98654323103449.5673828125"},
+		{"5.0", "5.73", "10118.08037159375"},
+		{"962.0", "3.2791", "6055212360.0000044205714144"},
+		{"5.69169126", "5.18515912", "8242.26344757948412597909547972726268869189399260047793106028930864"},
+		{"13.1337", "3.5196719618391835", "8636.856220644773844815693636723928750940666269885"},
+		{"67762386.283696923", "4.85917691669163916681738", "112761146905370140621385730157437443321.91755738117317148674362233906499698561022574811238435007575701773212242750262081945556470501"},
+		{"-3.0", "6.0", "729"},
+		{"-13.757", "5.0", "-492740.983929899460557"},
+		{"3.0", "-6.0", "0.0013717421124829"},
+		{"13.757", "-5.0", "0.000002029463821"},
+		{"66.12", "-7.61313", "0.000000000000013854086588876805036"},
+		{"6696871.12", "-2.61313", "0.000000000000000001455988684546983"},
+		{"-3.0", "-6.0", "0.0013717421124829"},
+		{"-13.757", "-5.0", "-0.000002029463821"},
+	} {
+		base, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Base)
+		exp, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Exponent)
+		expected, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Expected)
+
+		result := base.Pow(exp)
+
+		if result.Cmp(expected) != 0 {
+			t.Errorf("expected %s, got %s, for %s^%s", testCase.Expected, result.String(), testCase.Base, testCase.Exponent)
+		}
 	}
 }
 
-func TestNegativePow(t *testing.T) {
-	a := New(4, 0)
-	b := New(-2, 0)
-	x := a.Pow(b)
-	if x.String() != "0.0625" {
-		t.Errorf("Error, saw %s", x.String())
+func TestDecimal_PowWithPrecision(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, testCase := range []struct {
+		Base      string
+		Exponent  string
+		Precision int32
+		Expected  string
+	}{
+		{"0.0", "1.0", 2, "0.0"},
+		{"0.0", "5.7", 2, "0.0"},
+		{"0.0", "-3.2", 2, "0.0"},
+		{"3.13", "0.0", 2, "1.0"},
+		{"-591.5", "0.0", 2, "1.0"},
+		{"3.0", "3.0", 2, "27.0"},
+		{"3.0", "10.0", 2, "59049.0"},
+		{"3.13", "5.0", 5, "300.4150512793"},
+		{"4.0", "2.0", 2, "16.0"},
+		{"4.0", "-2.0", 2, "0.06"},
+		{"4.0", "-2.0", 4, "0.0625"},
+		{"629.25", "5.0", 6, "98654323103449.5673828125"},
+		{"5.0", "5.73", 20, "10118.080371595019317118681359884375"},
+		{"962.0", "3.2791", 15, "6055212360.000004406551603058195732"},
+		{"5.69169126", "5.18515912", 4, "8242.26344757948412587366859330429895955552280978668983459852256"},
+		{"13.1337", "3.5196719618391835", 8, "8636.85622064477384481569363672392591908386390769375"},
+		{"67762386.283696923", "4.85917691669163916681738", 10, "112761146905370140621385730157437443321.917557381173174638304347353880676293576708009282115993465286373470882947470198597518762"},
+		{"-3.0", "6.0", 2, "729"},
+		{"-13.757", "5.0", 4, "-492740.983929899460557"},
+		{"3.0", "-6.0", 10, "0.0013717421"},
+		{"13.757", "-5.0", 20, "0.00000202946382098037"},
+		{"66.12", "-7.61313", 20, "0.00000000000001385381563049821591633907104023700216"},
+		{"6696871.12", "-2.61313", 24, "0.0000000000000000014558252733872790626400278983397459207418"},
+		{"-3.0", "-6.0", 8, "0.00137174"},
+		{"-13.757", "-5.0", 16, "-0.000002029463821"},
+	} {
+		base, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Base)
+		exp, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Exponent)
+		expected, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Expected)
+
+		result, _ := base.PowWithPrecision(exp, testCase.Precision)
+
+		if result.Cmp(expected) != 0 {
+			t.Errorf("expected %s, got %s, for %s^%s", testCase.Expected, result.String(), testCase.Base, testCase.Exponent)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestDecimal_PowWithPrecision_Infinity(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, testCase := range []struct {
+		Base     string
+		Exponent string
+	}{
+		{"0.0", "0.0"},
+		{"0.0", "-2.0"},
+		{"0.0", "-4.6"},
+		{"-66.12", "7.61313"},      // Imaginary value
+		{"-5696871.12", "5.61313"}, // Imaginary value
+	} {
+		base, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Base)
+		exp, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Exponent)
+
+		_, err := base.PowWithPrecision(exp, 5)
+
+		if err == nil {
+			t.Errorf("lool it should be error")
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestDecimal_PowWithPrecision_UndefinedResult(t *testing.T) {
+	base := RequireFromString("0")
+	exponent := RequireFromString("0")
+
+	_, err := base.PowWithPrecision(exponent, 4)
+
+	if err == nil {
+		t.Errorf("expected error, cannot be represent undefined value of 0**0")
+	}
+}
+
+func TestDecimal_PowWithPrecision_InfinityResult(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, testCase := range []struct {
+		Base     string
+		Exponent string
+	}{
+		{"0.0", "-2.0"},
+		{"0.0", "-4.6"},
+		{"0.0", "-9239.671333"},
+	} {
+		base, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Base)
+		exp, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Exponent)
+
+		_, err := base.PowWithPrecision(exp, 4)
+
+		if err == nil {
+			t.Errorf("expected error, cannot represent infinity value of 0 ** y, where y < 0")
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestDecimal_PowWithPrecision_ImaginaryResult(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, testCase := range []struct {
+		Base     string
+		Exponent string
+	}{
+		{"-0.2261", "106.12"},
+		{"-66.12", "7.61313"},
+		{"-5696871.12", "5.61313"},
+	} {
+		base, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Base)
+		exp, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Exponent)
+
+		_, err := base.PowWithPrecision(exp, 4)
+
+		if err == nil {
+			t.Errorf("expected error, cannot represent imaginary value of x ** y, where x < 0 and y is non-integer decimal")
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestDecimal_PowInt32(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, testCase := range []struct {
+		Decimal  string
+		Exponent int32
+		Expected string
+	}{
+		{"0.0", 1, "0.0"},
+		{"3.13", 0, "1.0"},
+		{"-591.5", 0, "1.0"},
+		{"3.0", 3, "27.0"},
+		{"3.0", 10, "59049.0"},
+		{"3.13", 5, "300.4150512793"},
+		{"629.25", 5, "98654323103449.5673828125"},
+		{"-3.0", 6, "729"},
+		{"-13.757", 5, "-492740.983929899460557"},
+		{"3.0", -6, "0.0013717421124829"},
+		{"-13.757", -5, "-0.000002029463821"},
+	} {
+		base, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Decimal)
+		expected, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Expected)
+
+		result, _ := base.PowInt32(testCase.Exponent)
+
+		if result.Cmp(expected) != 0 {
+			t.Errorf("expected %s, got %s, for %s**%d", testCase.Expected, result.String(), testCase.Decimal, testCase.Exponent)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestDecimal_PowInt32_UndefinedResult(t *testing.T) {
+	base := RequireFromString("0")
+
+	_, err := base.PowInt32(0)
+
+	if err == nil {
+		t.Errorf("expected error, cannot be represent undefined value of 0**0")
+	}
+}
+
+func TestDecimal_PowBigInt(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, testCase := range []struct {
+		Decimal  string
+		Exponent *big.Int
+		Expected string
+	}{
+		{"3.13", big.NewInt(0), "1.0"},
+		{"-591.5", big.NewInt(0), "1.0"},
+		{"3.0", big.NewInt(3), "27.0"},
+		{"3.0", big.NewInt(10), "59049.0"},
+		{"3.13", big.NewInt(5), "300.4150512793"},
+		{"629.25", big.NewInt(5), "98654323103449.5673828125"},
+		{"-3.0", big.NewInt(6), "729"},
+		{"-13.757", big.NewInt(5), "-492740.983929899460557"},
+		{"3.0", big.NewInt(-6), "0.0013717421124829"},
+		{"-13.757", big.NewInt(-5), "-0.000002029463821"},
+	} {
+		base, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Decimal)
+		expected, _ := NewFromString(testCase.Expected)
+
+		result, _ := base.PowBigInt(testCase.Exponent)
+
+		if result.Cmp(expected) != 0 {
+			t.Errorf("expected %s, got %s, for %s**%d", testCase.Expected, result.String(), testCase.Decimal, testCase.Exponent)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+func TestDecimal_PowBigInt_UndefinedResult(t *testing.T) {
+	base := RequireFromString("0")
+
+	_, err := base.PowBigInt(big.NewInt(0))
+
+	if err == nil {
+		t.Errorf("expected error, undefined value of 0**0 cannot be represented")
 	}
 }